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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 13,000 years ago. Wikipedia
Nutrition Facts
Barley, hulledBarley, pearledBarley, pearled, cookedBarley, hulled
Amount Per 100 grams1 cup (184 g)100 grams
Calories 354
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Nigella sativa, often called black cumin, is an annual flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to south and southwest Asia. Nigella sativa grows to 20–30 cm tall, with finely divided, linear leaves. Wikipedia
Nutrition Facts
FennelFennel
Amount Per 1 tsp, whole (2 g)1 tbsp, whole (5.8 g)100 grams100 grams
Calories 345
The International Symposium on "Horticulture in Developing Countries and World Food Production" was held in Brisbane, Australia in 2014 as part of the International Horticultural Congress (IHC2014).
The three-day symposium will include three invited speakers, sessions of oral presentations and a poster session. There will be a linked workshop focusing on the experiences of PARDI - ACIAR's Pacific Agribusiness Research-for-Development Initiative.
The sponsor of this symposium (ACIAR), supports research in support of agricultural development in numerous countries across Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Partners in these projects are actively encouraged to participate in the symposium and report on their findings, and there will be a particular focus on ACIAR-funded projects with several sessions targeting this area. Participants from ACIAR-funded programs are especially invited to submit abstracts.
Horticulture has traditionally provided food security and a way of life for millions of smallholders in developing countries. Resource-poor communities are increasingly using their skills in horticulture as a means to increase cash incomes and more broadly to improve their livelihoods by supplying fruits and vegetables, fresh or processed, to high-value local, urban and international markets. The international research-and-development community has also identified supporting this process as a promising entry point for efforts to improve the livelihoods of resource-poor people.
The world’s population is projected to increase by 1 billion people by 2025 to reach 8 billion. In addition to the challenge of feeding a growing population, poor lifestyles and diets now sees the number of overweight adults (>1.4 billion) exceeding the number suffering from hunger (<1 billion), with the total number experiencing some form of malnutrition estimated to be over 3 billion. While the historical approach to alleviate hunger has been to foster increased production and supply of a small number of staple crop species to regions in need, the rise in non-communicable diseases and malnutrition in these regions, and in the developed regions of the world, has seen a growing recognition of the importance of including a diverse range of nutritious horticultural produce as a component of a healthy diet.
The rising demand for horticultural produce creates opportunities for income generating activities for small-scale farmers and entrepreneurs in rural and peri-urban and urban settings. Horticultural production not only improves food and nutrition security, but also provides livelihoods to producers and all parties involved in the associated value chains, contributing towards economic growth and development.
Scientists working with developing countries, or on projects related to the broader topic of world food production are invited to submit abstracts for either oral or posters sessions, and lets together make this an essential symposium for workers in this vital area of horticulture.
In this symposium, we invite participants to share their research/experience in oral or poster presentations on the following themes:
Enhancing food security in developing countries ACIAR-funded projects in the Asia-pacific regions and AfricaFruit and vegetable production, marketing and postharvest management
Value chains in developing countriesAdaptations to climate change in developing counties
Global trends in horticultural production and food security
Research for development case studies
Emergency relief and horticultural production
Enabling environment for improving livelihoods (including policy, access to resources and overcoming social and cultural barriers)
Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported "diploid" form of okra). Truly wild (as opposed to naturalised) populations are not known with certainty and the species may be a cultigen.
The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins. Supporters of a South Asian origin point to the presence of its proposed parents in that region. Supporters of a West African origin point to the greater diversity of okra in that region.
The Egyptians and Moors of the 12th and 13th centuries used the Arabic word for the plant,
bamya , suggesting it had come into Egypt from Arabia, but earlier it was probably taken from Ethiopia to Arabia . The plant may have entered southwest Asia across the Red Sea or the Bab-el-Mandeb strait to the Arabian Peninsula , rather than north across the Sahara , or from India. One of the earliest accounts is by a Spanish Moor who visited Egypt in 1216 and described the plant under cultivation by the locals who ate the tender, young pods with meal .
From Arabia, the plant spread around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and eastward. The plant was introduced to the Americas by ships plying the Atlantic slave trade by 1658, when its presence was recorded in Brazil . It was further documented in Suriname in 1686. Okra may have been introduced to southeastern North America from Africa in the early 18th century. By 1748, it was being grown as far north as Philadelphia.
Thomas Jefferson noted it was well established in Virginia by 1781. It was commonplace throughout the southern United States by 1800, and the first mention of different cultivars was in 1806.
The current record-holders for individual, non-clonal trees are the Great Basin bristlecone pine trees from California and Nevada , in the United States . Through tree-ring cross-referencing, they have been shown to be more than five millennia old.
A clonal colony can survive for much longer than an individual tree. A colony of 47,000 quaking aspen trees (nicknamed "Pando "), covering 106 acres (43 ha) in the Fishlake National Forest of Utah, is considered one of the oldest and largest organisms in the world. The colony has been estimated to be 80,000 years old, although tree ring samples date individual, above-ground, trees at only an average of about 130 years.
A colony of Huon pine trees covering 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) on Mount Read , Tasmania is estimated to be around 10,000 years old, as determined be DNA samples taken from pollen collected from the sediment of a nearby lake. Individual trees in this group date to no more than 4,000 years old, as determined by tree ring samples.
False ashoka
A popular tree known as "false ashoka tree" or even as "ashoka tree", Polyalthia longifolia, is cultivated to resemble the growth pattern of erect pillar-like Mediterranean cypress trees. It is a popular park and garden plant, much used in landscaping on the Indian subcontinent. This tree can easily be distinguished by its compound leaves and very different flowers. Ashoka flowers are red (initially orange in color) while False Ashoka flowers are apple green in color. Ashoka fruits look like broad beans containing multiple seeds while false ashoka fruits are small, spherical and contain only one seed. Ashoka trees are small in height, while false ashoka is taller.
The leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin. The flowers are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five or more petals , color from white to pink, red, orange, peach, yellow or purple, [6] and from 4–18 cm broad. Flower color in certain species, such as H. mutabilis and H. tiliaceus , changes with age.[7] The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule dehisces (splits open) at maturity. It is of red and white colours. It is an example of complete flowers.
Landscaping
Many species are grown for their showy flowers or used as landscape shrubs , and are used to attract butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds.
Hibiscus is a very hardy, versatile plant and in tropical conditions it can enhance the beauty of any garden. Being versatile it adapts itself easily to balcony gardens in crammed urban spaces and can be easily grown in pots as a creeper or even in hanging pots. It is a perennial and flowers through the year. As it comes in a variety of colors, its a plant which can add vibrancy to any garden.
The only infestation that gardeners need to be vigilant about is mealybug. Mealybug infestations are easy to spot as its clearly visible as a distinct white cottony infestation on buds, leaves or even stems. To protect the plant you need to trim away the infected part, spray with water and then spray with a good insecticide recommended by a plant nursery.
Carambola fruit, is about 5 to 15 centimetres (2 to 6 inches) in length and is an oval shape. It usually has five prominent longitudinal ridges, but in rare instances it can have as few as four or as many as eight. In cross section, it resembles a star. The skin is thin, smooth, and waxy and turns a light to dark yellow when ripe. The flesh is translucent and light yellow to yellow in color. Each fruit can have 10 to 12 flat light brown seeds about 6 to 13 mm (0.25 to 0.5 in) in width and enclosed in gelatinous aril . Once removed from the fruit, they lose viability within a few days.
Like the closely related bilimbi , there are two main types of carambola: the small sour (or tart) type and the larger sweet type. The sour varieties have a higher oxalic acid content than the sweet type. A number of cultivars have been developed in recent years. The most common cultivars grown commercially include the sweet types "Arkin" (Florida ), "Dah Pon" (Taiwan ), "Ma fueng" (Thailand), "Maha" (Malaysia), and "Demak" (Indonesia ) and the sour types "Golden Star", "Newcomb", "Star King", and "Thayer" (all from Florida). Some of the sour varieties like "Golden Star" can become sweet if allowed to ripen.
The maize plant is often 3 m (10 ft) in height, though some natural strains can grow 12 m (39 ft). The stem is commonly composed of 20 internodes [23] of 18 cm (7.1 in) length. A leaf, which grows from each node, is generally 9 cm (4 in) in width and 120 cm (4 ft) in length.
Ears develop above a few of the leaves in the midsection of the plant, between the stem and leaf sheath, elongating by ~3 mm/day, to a length of 18 cm (7 in) with 60 cm (24 in) being the maximum alleged in the subspecies.
They are female inflorescences , tightly enveloped by several layers of ear leaves commonly called husks. Certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce many additional developed ears. These are the source of the " baby corn " used as a vegetable in Asian cuisine .
The apex of the stem ends in the tassel, an
inflorescence of male flowers. When the tassel is mature and conditions are suitably warm and dry, anthers on the tassel dehisce and release pollen. Maize pollen is anemophilous (dispersed by wind), and because of its large settling velocity, most pollen falls within a few meters of the tassel.
Elongated stigmas, called silks , emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and 18 cm (7 in) in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a "kernel" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as " caryopsis ", typical of the grasses , and the entire kernel is often referred to as the " seed ". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of
peas , and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the ear- maximum size of kernel in subspecies is reputedly 2.5 cm (1 in).
An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray ,purple , green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability.
A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn . Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking them tender first in boiling water.
Daucus carota is a biennial plant that grows a
rosette of leaves in the spring and summer, while building up the stout taproot that stores large amounts of sugars for the plant to flower in the second year
Soon after germination, carrot seedlings show a distinct demarcation between the taproot and the stem. The latter is thicker and lacks lateral roots. At the upper end of the stem is the seed leaf. The first true leaf appears about 10–15 days after germination. Subsequent leaves, produced from the stem nodes, are alternating (with a single leaf attached to a node, and the leaves growing in alternate directions) and compound , and
arranged in a spiral. The leaf blades are pinnate . As the plant grows, the bases of the seed leaves are pushed apart. The stem, located just above the ground, is compressed and the internodes are not distinct. When the seed stalk elongates, the tip of the stem narrows and becomes pointed, extends upward, and becomes a highly branched
inflorescence . The stems grow to 60–200 cm (20–80 in) tall.
Most of the taproot consists of a pulpy outer cortex (phloem ) and an inner core (xylem). High-quality carrots have a large proportion of cortex compared to core. Although a completely xylem-free carrot is not possible, some cultivars have small and deeply pigmented cores; the taproot can appear to lack a core when the colour of the cortex and core are similar in intensity. Taproots typically have a long conical shape, although cylindrical and round cultivars are available. The root diameter can range from 1 cm (0.4 in) to as much as 10 cm (4 in) at the widest part. The root length ranges from 5 to 50 cm (2.0 to 19.7 in), although most are between 10 and 25 cm (4 and 10 in).
Flower development begins when the flat
meristem changes from producing leaves to an uplifted, conical meristem capable of producing stem elongation and an cluster of flowers . The cluster is a compound umbel , and each umbel contains several smaller umbels (umbellets). The first (primary) umbel occurs at the end of the main floral stem; smaller secondary umbels grow from the main branch, and these further branch into third, fourth, and even later-flowering umbels. A large, primary umbel can contain up to 50 umbellets, each of which may have as many as 50 flowers; subsequent umbels have fewer flowers. Flowers are small and white, sometimes with a light green or yellow tint. They consist of five petals, five stamens , and an entire calyx. The stamens usually split and the stamens fall off before the stigma becomes receptive to receive pollen. The stamens of the brown, male, sterile flowers degenerate and shrivel before the flower fully opens. In the other type of male sterile flower, the stamens are replaced by petals, and these petals do not fall off. A nectar-containing disc is present on the upper surface of the
carpels.
Flowers consist of five petals, five stamens, and an entire calyx. Flowers change sex in their development, so the stamens release their pollen before the stigma of the same flower is receptive. The arrangement is centripetal, meaning the oldest flowers are near the edge and the youngest flowers are in the center. Flowers usually first open at the outer edge of the primary umbel, followed about a week later on the secondary umbels, and then in subsequent weeks in higher-order umbels. The usual flowering period of individual umbels is 7 to 10 days, so a plant can be in the process of flowering for 30–50 days. The distinctive umbels and floral nectaries attract pollinating insects. After fertilization and as seeds develop, the outer umbellets of an umbel bend inward causing the umbel shape to change from slightly convex or fairly flat to concave, and when cupped it resembles a bird's nest.The fruit that develops is a schizocarp consisting of two mericarps ; each mericarp is a true seed . The paired mericarps are easily separated when they are dry. Premature separation (shattering) before harvest is undesirable because it can result in seed loss.
Mature seeds are flattened on the commissural side that faced the septum of the ovary. The flattened side has five longitudinal ribs. The bristly hairs that protrude from some ribs are usually removed by abrasion during
milling and cleaning. Seeds also contain oil ducts and canals. Seeds vary somewhat in size, ranging from less than 500 to more than 1000 seeds per gram. The carrot is a diploid species, and has nine relatively short, uniform-length chromosomes (2 n=9). The genome size is estimated to be 473 mega base pairs, which is four times larger than Arabidopsis thaliana , one-fifth the size of the maize genome, and about the same size as the rice genome.
Coca tea , also called mate de coca, is an herbal tea (infusion ) made using the (typically raw) leaves of the coca plant, which is native to South America. It is made either by submerging the coca leaf or dipping a tea bag in hot water. The tea is most commonly consumed in the Andes mountain range, particularly in Peru . It is greenish yellow in color and has a mild bitter flavor similar to green tea with a more organic sweetness.
Though also known as mate , mate de coca has very little in common with the yerba mate drink in Southeastern South America.
Alkaloid content and stimulant properties
The leaves of the coca plant contain alkaloids which—when extracted chemically—are the source for cocaine base. However, the amount of coca alkaloid in the raw leaves is small. A cup of coca tea prepared from one gram of coca leaves (the typical contents of a tea bag) contains approximately 4.2 mg of organic coca alkaloid. (In comparison, a line of cocaine contains between 20 and 30 milligrams. ) Owing to the presence of these alkaloids, coca tea is a mild stimulant; its consumption may be compared to consumption of coffee or tea. The coca alkaloid content of coca tea is such that the consumption of one cup of coca tea can cause a positive result on a drug test for cocaine, however.
Similar to decaffeination in coffee, coca tea can be decocainized. Just as decaffeinated coffee retains a minute quantity of caffeine, decocainized coca tea will still contain a minute quantity of organic coca alkaloids.
Cocoa pod
A cocoa pod (fruit) has a rough, leathery rind about 2 to 3 cm (0.79 to 1.18 in) thick (this varies with the origin and variety of pod) filled with sweet, mucilaginous pulp (called baba de cacao in South America) with a lemonade-like taste enclosing 30 to 50 large seeds that are fairly soft and a pale lavender to dark brownish purple color. Due to heat buildup in the fermentation process, cacao beans lose most of the purplish hue and become mostly brown in color, with an adhered skin which includes the dried remains of the fruity pulp. This skin is released easily after roasting by winnowing . White seeds are found in some rare varieties, usually mixed with purples, and are considered of higher value. Historically, white cacao was cultivated by the Rama people of Nicaragua .
Varieties
Three main varieties of cocoa: Criollo, Trinitario and Forastero
The three main varieties of cocoa plant are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario. The first is the most widely used, comprising 95% of the world production of cocoa. Cocoa beans of the Criollo variety are rarer and considered a delicacy. Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela (Chuao and Porcelana). Trinitario (from
Trinidad ) is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties. It is considered to be of much higher quality than Forastero, but has higher yields and is more resistant to disease than Criollo.
Harvesting
Cocoa trees grow in hot, rainy tropical areas within 20° of latitude from the Equator .[18] Cocoa harvest is not restricted to one period per year and a harvest typically occurs over several months. In fact, in many countries, cocoa can be harvested at any time of the year. Pesticides are often applied to the trees to combat capsid bugs and fungicides to fight black pod disease .
Immature cocoa pods have a variety of colours, but most often are green, red, or purple, and as they mature, their colour tends towards yellow or orange, particularly in the creases.Unlike most fruiting trees, the cacoa pod grows directly from the trunk or large branch of a tree rather than from the end of a branch, similar to jackfruit . This makes harvesting by hand easier as most of the pods will not be up in the higher branches. The pods on a tree do not ripen together; harvesting needs to be done periodically through the year. Harvesting occurs between three and four times weekly during the harvest season.
The ripe and near-ripe pods, as judged by their colour, are harvested from the trunk and branches of the cocoa tree with a curved knife on a long pole. Care must be used when cutting the stem of the pod to avoid damaging the junction of the stem with the tree, as this is where future flowers and pods will emerge. One person can harvest an estimated 650 pods per day.
Grasses may be annual or perennial herbs.,
:10 generally with the following characteristics (the image gallery can be used for reference): The stems of grasses, called culms are usually cylindrical (more rarely flattened, but not 3-angled) and are hollow, plugged at the nodes , where the leaves are attached. Grass leaves are nearly always alternate and distichous (in one plane), and have parallel veins.
Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem and a blade with entire (i.e., smooth) margins. The leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with silica phytoliths , which discourage grazing animals; some, such as sword grass , are sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs called the ligule lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath.
Flowers of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in spikelets, each having one or more florets. The spikelets are further grouped into panicles or spikes . The part of the spikelet that bears the florets is called the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two (or sometimes fewer)
bracts at the base, called glumes, followed by one or more florets. A floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts, one external—the lemma —and one internal—the palea. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic —maize being an important exception—and anemophilous or wind-pollinated. The perianth is reduced to two scales, called lodicules, that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea; these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. This complex structure can be seen in the image on the right, portraying a wheat (Triticum aestivum ) spikelet. The fruit of grasses is a caryopsis , in which the seed coat is fused to the fruit wall. A tiller is a leafy shoot other than the first shoot produced from the seed.
Growth and development
Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from elongated stem tips. This low growth point evolved in response to grazing animals and allows grasses to be grazed or mown regularly without severe damage to the plant.
Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch-type (also called caespitose), stoloniferous , and rhizomatous .[ citation needed ] The success of the grasses lies in part in their morphology and growth processes and in part in their physiological diversity. Most of the grasses divide into two physiological groups, using the C3 and
C4 photosynthetic pathways for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway, linked to specialized Kranz leaf anatomy, which allows for increased water use efficiency , rendering them better adapted to hot, arid environments and those lacking in carbon dioxide .
The C3 grasses are referred to as "cool-season" grasses, while the C4 plants are considered "warm-season" grasses.
Annual cool-season - wheat , rye, annual bluegrass (annual meadowgrass, Poa annua), and oat
Perennial cool-season - orchardgrass (cocksfoot, Dactylis glomerata), fescue (Festuca spp.), Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)
Annual warm-season - maize , sudangrass, and
pearl millet
Perennial warm-season - big bluestem,
Indiangrass , Bermudagrass and switchgrass
Here are a few tree pruning techniques to keep in mind:
Before making a cut, look for the branch collar , which grows from the stem tissue at the bottom base of the branch. Look for the branch ridge, which is on the upper surface and is parallel to the branch angle at the stem.
Always cut outside the branch bark ridge and angle your cut down and away from the stem . Take care not to injure the branch collar.
Use the same technique to prune dead branches and living branches.
If a stem is too long, use the three-cut technique : Make a notch on the side of the stem that faces away from the branch that’s being retained; make the second cut inside the crotch of the branch and above the branch ridge; the third cut will remove the stub by cutting through the stem parallel to the branch bark ridge.
General Tree Trimming Tips
It’s almost always best to trim or prune a tree during its dormant season. Although you can technically prune a pine tree at any time, it is still better to do so when it is dormant. The only exception is when a hazard exists.
Be conscientious about the size of the branch that you are going to remove. If it is less than five centimeters in diameter, removing it is fine. If it is between five and 10 centimeters in diameter, you might not want to do it. If it is more than 10 centimeters in diameter, you should only do so if you have a really good reason.
Only trim branches that have weak, V-shaped, narrow angles. Retain branches that have strong, U-shaped angles.
>Lateral branches should be between one-half and three-quarters the diameter of the stem at point of attachment. Otherwise, they should be removed.
When pruning is complete, the ratio of living crown to tree height should be two-thirds .
Try to prune away branches when they are young . They are much easier to manage at that point, and the risk of leaving nasty scars is much lower.
Don’t trim a branch too close or too long. You shouldn’t leave a large stub or remove the branch collar.
